Cooking Conversions & Culinary Reference

Working Tools

The precision desk

Fast calculations for the work that crosses borders: units, yields, pans and baker’s percentages. Exact physical conversions are separated from culinary working conventions.

Universal converter

Exact where defined

Amount

From

To

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Recipe scaler

Yield factor

Original yield

Target yield

Ingredient amount

Unit label

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Pan scaler

Surface area

Original shape

Target shape

Original size

Target size

Dimension unit

—

Scale ingredients by the area factor. Pan depth, batter rise, material and bake time still require judgment.

Baker’s percentage

Flour = 100%

Flour (g)

Water / liquid (g)

Salt (g)

Yeast / levain input (g)

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Across Systems

International measures

A “cup” or “tablespoon” is not always the same thing. Use grams and milliliters for serious production; use the table below when translating a source recipe.

Measure	Working value	System	Professional note
US teaspoon	4.9289 mL exact · 5 mL kitchen	US customary	NIST culinary guidance rounds to 5 mL.
US tablespoon	14.7868 mL exact · 15 mL kitchen	US customary	3 US teaspoons.
US fluid ounce	29.5735 mL exact · 30 mL kitchen	US customary	Not the same as an imperial fluid ounce.
US cup	236.588 mL exact · 240 mL kitchen	US customary	NIST metric-kitchen equivalence uses 240 mL.
Metric cup	250 mL	Metric culinary convention	Common in Australia and many metric recipes.
Australian tablespoon	20 mL	Australian metric convention	A major source of recipe error when translated as 15 mL.
Imperial fluid ounce	28.4131 mL	Imperial	Smaller than the US fluid ounce.
Imperial pint	568.261 mL	Imperial	20 imperial fluid ounces; US pint is 473.176 mL.
US pint	473.176 mL	US customary	16 US fluid ounces.
US gallon	3.78541 L	US customary	Smaller than an imperial gallon (4.54609 L).

Volume to Weight

Ingredient weight index

Volume-to-weight conversion is ingredient-specific and technique-specific. These are recipe-reference values, not universal physical constants. For reproducible work, weigh the ingredient specified by the original formula whenever possible.

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Ingredient	Reference volume	Reference weight	Notes
All-purpose flour	1 US cup	120 g	Weighing is strongly preferred; packing changes volume dramatically.
Bread flour	1 US cup	120 g	Reference value.
Almond flour	1 US cup	96 g	Fine almond flour; meal may differ.
Brown sugar, packed	1 US cup	213 g	Light or dark.
Confectioners’ / icing sugar	1 US cup	113 g	Unsifted.
Superfine / caster sugar	1 US cup	190 g	Reference for superfine sugar.
Butter	1/2 US cup · 8 tbsp	113 g	One US stick.
Heavy / light cream	1 US cup	227 g	Recipe-reference value; fat percentage differs by market.
Fresh milk	1 US cup	227 g	Recipe-reference value.
Sour cream	1 US cup	227 g	Crème fraîche reference: 113 g per 1/2 cup.
Unsweetened cocoa	1/2 US cup	42 g	Natural/Dutch density can vary.
Cornstarch	1/4 US cup	28 g	In the UK, “cornflour” commonly means cornstarch.
Honey	1 US tbsp	21 g	Temperature and water content affect flow, not nominal mass reference.
Maple syrup	1/2 US cup	156 g	Reference value.
Olive oil	1/4 US cup	50 g	Reference value.
Vegetable oil	1 US cup	198 g	Different oils vary slightly in density.
Large egg, cracked	1	50 g	Useful formula reference; shell-egg size labels vary by region.
Large egg white	1	30–35 g	Weigh when precision matters.
Large egg yolk	1	14 g	Weigh when precision matters.
Long-grain rice, dry	1/2 US cup	99 g	Variety and grain dimensions affect packing.
Old-fashioned oats	1 US cup	89 g	Some branded rolled oats use different reference weights.
Parmesan, grated	1/2 US cup	50 g	Grate size materially affects volume.
Tomato paste	2 US tbsp	29 g	Reference value.
Garlic, minced	2 US tbsp	28 g	Cut size changes packing.

Function First

Substitutions with consequences

A serious substitution table should explain what changes—not pretend two ingredients are identical. Use these as controlled alternatives, then adjust acidity, water, fat, sweetness or structure as the formula requires.

Buttermilk

Good in many bakes

Alternative: 1 cup plain yogurt, or 1 tbsp vinegar/lemon juice plus milk to make 1 cup. Consequence: flavor, viscosity and acidity differ; formulas relying on baking soda need sufficient acid.

Heavy cream

Cooking use

Alternative: 3/4 cup milk + 1/3 cup butter for roughly 1 cup. Consequence: useful for sauces/baking, but it will not behave like commercial heavy cream for whipping.

Flour as thickener

Technique dependent

Alternative: 1 tbsp flour ≈ 1/2 tbsp cornstarch, potato starch, rice starch or arrowroot. Consequence: gloss, opacity, freeze/thaw behavior and acid tolerance differ by starch.

Cornstarch

Sauces

Alternative: 1 tbsp cornstarch ≈ 2 tbsp all-purpose flour. Consequence: flour gives a more opaque sauce and generally requires longer cooking.

Cake flour

Approximation

Alternative: for a 1-cup target, use 3/4 cup + 2 tbsp all-purpose flour (105 g) plus 2 tbsp cornstarch (14 g). Consequence: this approximates lower protein behavior; it is not chemically identical to milled cake flour.

Natural vs Dutch cocoa

Leavening matters

Rule: natural cocoa contributes acidity; Dutch-process is less acidic. Consequence: in formulas driven by baking soda, swapping cocoa styles can alter rise, color and flavor. With baking powder-dominant formulas, interchange is often more forgiving.

Milk

Often direct

Alternative: lactose-free cow’s milk can generally substitute directly. Plant milks can work in many applications. Consequence: protein, fat, sweetness, browning and flavor can shift substantially.

Butter ↔ oil

Not equivalent

Rule: butter contains water and milk solids; oil is essentially all fat. Consequence: tenderness, spread, aeration, browning and flavor change. Prefer formula-specific conversion rather than a universal swap.

Small Ingredients, Large Errors

Eggs & salt across markets

Two of the most common sources of international recipe drift. For formula work, weigh cracked egg and salt rather than relying only on labels or spoon volume.

EU eggs

XL: ≥73 g
L: ≥63 to <73 g
M: ≥53 to <63 g
S: <53 g
Official Class A shell-weight classes.

US eggs

USDA classes are based on minimum net weight per dozen: Jumbo 30 oz, XL 27 oz, Large 24 oz, Medium 21 oz, Small 18 oz.
A “large” shell egg therefore does not map perfectly to EU “large.”

Formula egg

A useful baking reference is 50 g for one large cracked egg, with approximately 30–35 g white and 14 g yolk. For pastry, custards and scaled production, weigh the egg mass.

Diamond Crystal kosher

1 tbsp ≈ 8 g in the cited baking reference. Crystal geometry creates a very low spoon-density compared with other salts.

Morton kosher

1 tbsp ≈ 16 g in the same reference—about twice the spoon-weight of Diamond Crystal. Do not substitute spoon-for-spoon.

Table salt

1 tbsp ≈ 18 g in the cited reference. For professional seasoning formulas, use percentage by ingredient weight and verify the salt actually in your kitchen.

Safety Baseline

Minimum internal temperatures

These are U.S. food-safety minimums—not culinary doneness targets. Professional kitchens should also follow their local food code, HACCP plan, approved reduced-oxygen/sous-vide procedures and establishment-specific controls.

Food	Minimum internal temperature	Rest / note
Beef, pork, veal & lamb — steaks, chops, roasts	145°F · 62.8°C	Rest at least 3 minutes.
Ground beef, pork, veal & lamb	160°F · 71.1°C	No rest time specified in USDA minimum chart.
All poultry, including ground poultry	165°F · 73.9°C	Measure in the appropriate thickest location.
Fish & shellfish	145°F · 62.8°C	USDA minimum reference.
Egg dishes	160°F · 71.1°C	Use pasteurized eggs when a validated process requires lower-temperature service.
Leftovers & casseroles	165°F · 73.9°C	Reheat thoroughly.

Translation Without Guesswork

Kitchen language across borders

Regional names can hide meaningful differences. This quick lexicon is designed to prevent the most common misreads in British, European, Australian and American recipes.

UK / Europe / Australia	US usage	Important note
Coriander leaves	Cilantro	In US usage, “coriander” more often refers to the seed.
Rocket	Arugula	Same leafy green.
Aubergine	Eggplant	Same vegetable.
Courgette	Zucchini	Same summer squash.
Caster sugar	Superfine sugar	Finer crystal than standard granulated sugar.
Icing sugar	Confectioners’ / powdered sugar	Commercial starch content can vary by brand.
Plain flour	All-purpose flour	Protein specifications are not identical across mills/countries.
Strong flour	Bread flour	Compare protein %, not just the name.
Bicarbonate of soda	Baking soda	Sodium bicarbonate.
Cornflour (UK)	Cornstarch	US “corn flour” can mean finely milled whole corn—very different.
Double cream	No exact US equivalent	Generally richer than US heavy cream; do not assume identical fat percentage.
Greaseproof / baking parchment	Parchment paper	Wax paper is not a heat-equivalent substitute.

From The Lello Guides

Read the subject in context

The Reference is designed for quick working answers. The Lello Guides explain the judgment behind the numbers and connect them to the pantry.

U.S. & European Measurements

Why cups, tablespoons and ingredient weights need more than a single conversion table.

Read the guide →

Fleur de Sel vs Sea Salt vs Kosher Salt

Texture, crystal density, finishing use and why professional salt formulas belong in grams.